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How to create Objects in Python Programming ?

Creating Objects

Python is an object-oriented language. All data items in Python are objects. In Python, data items that could be thought of as similar are named by a type or class. The term type and class in Python are synonymous: they are two names for the same thing. So when you read about types in Python you can think of classes or vice versa.

There are several built-in types of data in Python including int, float, str, list, and dict which is short for dictionary. You can also get help for any type by typing help(typename) in the Python shell, where typename is a type or class in Python.
for example :       >>> help(int)

 A very good language reference can be found at http://python.org/doc, the official Python documentation website.

Literal Values

There are two ways to create objects in Python. In a few cases, you can use a literal value to create an object. Literal values are used when we want to set some variable to a specific value within our program. For example, the literal 6 denotes any object with the integer value of 6.

       x = 6

This creates an int object containing the value 6. It also points the reference called x at this object as pictured in Fig -1. All assignments in Python point references at objects. 

Any time you see an assignment statement, you should remember that the thing on the left side of the equals sign is a reference and the thing on the right side is either another reference or a newly created object. In this case, writing x = 6 makes a new object and then points x at this object.

        reference = another reference (or) object

Other literal values may be written in Python as well. Here are some literal values that are possible in Python.

• int literals: 6, 3, 10, -2, etc.

• float literals: 6.0, -3.2, 4.5E10

• str literals: ‘hi there’, “how are you”

• list literals: [], [6, ‘hi there’]

• dict literals: {}, {‘hi there’:6, ‘how are you’:4}

Python lets you specify float literals with an exponent. So, 4.5E10 represents the float 45000000000.0. Any number written with a decimal point is a float, whether there is a 0 or some other value after the decimal point. If you write a number using the E or exponent notation, it is a float as well.

Any number without a decimal point is an int, unless it is written in E notation.  

String literals are surrounded by either single or double quotes.

List literals are surrounded by [ and ]. The [] literal represents the empty list.

The {} literal is the empty dictionary. A dictionary is a mapping of keys to values. In the dictionary literal, the key ‘hi there’ is mapped to the value 6, and the key ‘how are you’ is mapped to 4.

Non-literal Object Creation

when an object is created, sometimes it may not created from a literal value. It can be created from one or more existing objects. It is called Non-literal Object Creation.

For instance, if we have a string in Python, like ‘6’ and want to create an int object from that string, we can do the following.

y = ’6’      # ‘6’ is a string and assigned to y

x = int(y)   # value of y is converted to integer

                       print(x)  # now x = 6 , i.e,  it becomes int literal

In this short piece of code, y is a reference to the str object created from the string literal. The variable x is a reference to an object that is created by using the object that y refers to. In general, when we want to create an object based on other object values we write the following:

variable = type(other_object_values)

The type is any type or class name in Python, like int, float, str or any other type. The other_object_values is a comma separated sequence of references to other objects that are needed by the class or type to create an instance (i.e. an object) of that type. Here are some examples of creating objects from non-literal values.

z = float(’6.3’)   # ‘6.3’ is a string, it is converted to float and assigned to z

w = str(z)          # z value converted to string and assigned to w

u = list(w)      # this results in the list [’6’, ’.’, ’3’]

Calling Methods on Objects

Objects are useful because they allow us to collect related information and group them with behaviour that act on this data. These behaviours are called methods in Python.

There are two kinds of methods in any object-oriented language: mutator and accessor methods.

Accessor methods access the current state of an object but don’t change the object. Accessor methods return new object references when called.

x = ’how are you’

y = x.upper()

print(y)

Here, the method upper is called on the object that x refers to. The upper accessor method returns a new object, i.e, a str object, that is an upper-cased version of the original string.

Note that x is not changed by calling the upper method on it. The upper method is an accessor method.

There are many accessor methods available on the str type.

Some methods are mutator methods. These methods actually change the existing object. One good example of this is the reverse method on the list type.

myList = [1, 2, 3]

myList.reverse()

print(myList)      # This prints [3, 2, 1] to the screen

The reverse method mutates the existing object, in this case the list that myList refers to. Once called, a mutator method can’t be undone. The change or mutation is permanent until mutated again by some other mutator method.

All classes contain accessor methods. Without accessor methods, the class would be pretty uninteresting. We use accessor methods to retrieve a value that is stored in an object or to retrieve a value that depends on the value stored in an object.

If a class had no accessor methods we could put values in the object but we could never retrieve them.

Some classes have mutator methods and some don’t. For instance, the list class has mutator methods, including the reverse method.

There are some classes that don’t have any mutator methods. For instance, the str class does not have any mutator methods.

When a class does not contain any mutator methods, we say that the class is immutable. We can form new values from the data in an immutable class, but once an immutable object is created, it cannot be changed. Other immutable classes include int and float.

Implementing a Class

Programming in an object-oriented language usually means implementing classes that describe objects which hold information that is needed by the program you are writing.

Objects contain data and methods operate on that data. A class is the definition of the data and methods for a specific type of object.

Every class contains one special method called a constructor. The constructor’s job is to create an instance of an object by placing references to data within the object itself.

For example, consider a class called Dog. A dog has a name, a birthday, and a sound it makes when it barks. When we create a Dog object, we write code like that appearing as below.

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